Chapter 6, Background (1)
The guards of the garrison are only provided with bows and arrows, as well as sabers. All citizens aged twenty are conscripted into military service, while those aged sixty are exempted. Those who are capable of riding and shooting are classified as cavalry, while the rest are categorized as infantry, mounted infantry, hand-to-hand combatants, and foot archers
In this era, the army is primarily composed of infantry, which consists of polearm soldiers and sword-and-shield bearers. The former are equipped with polearms (spears with a slanted tip), halberds, axes, javelins, and other long-range weapons, while the latter are equipped with various sizes of shields and short-range weapons such as swords, axes, broad swords, hammers, and hooks. They wear armor made of metal and leather.
The early Tang Dynasty army continued to use the "Fubing System." Based on the land distribution system, military offices were established in 634 locations across various regions, states, and counties, collectively referred to as the Zhechong Office. This system implemented a dual role of soldiers as both farmers and warriors, allowing for the concealment of military resources among the populace. Soldiers were drawn from self-sustaining farmers and wealthy households established under the land distribution system, replacing tax obligations with regular military service. They kept weapons and armor at home, ready to mobilize in large numbers whenever the state required.
The forbidden troops were originally the Feather Forest garrison, also known as the North Gate army, stationed at Xuanwu Gate. Their origins can be traced back to when Emperor Gaozu of the Tang Dynasty raised his army in Taiyuan, pursuing those who voluntarily stayed overnight with his personal troops. Each military unit was composed of approximately 20,000 soldiers, and due to the passage of time, they were all succeeded by their sons, hence referred to as hereditary father-son soldiers
According to the functions and equipment of the military branches, they can be further divided into central garrisons, cavalry, archers, light cavalry, infantry, and long-range water units. The subordinate officials are in the following order: special assistant, chief historian, six department officers, and military advisors. They are responsible for the local auxiliary troops and military households. The military offices are classified into three levels: upper, middle, and lower, based on their scale. Military service is rotated every five terms for a duration of one year, involving approximately 800 to 1,500 personnel. At its peak, there were over 600 military offices nationwide, totaling more than 700,000 military personnel.
However, the dozens of military offices under each garrison are interspersed throughout the various regions of the country. They are mutually constrained at the local level through unrelated customs and administrative systems, and within the capital's garrison, they prevent any particular faction from gaining power by utilizing local affiliations and other means through a diverse source of military personnel.
At that time, the southern and northern garrisons took turns on duty, not only were their encampments and accommodations interspersed, but the generals also overlapped in their jurisdictions. The emperor employed this method of "mutual inspection" to achieve a balance of power and prevent any general from becoming too powerful. Due to the interspersed locations, entering the opposing camp required a pardon document, and entry could only be granted after the escort officer and gatekeeper reported back. (However, the later eunuch dictatorship broke this system of checks and balances, taking control of the imperial guards' power, arbitrarily deposing and replacing emperors, and even plotting the murder of the sovereign)
Each unit is equipped for fire level 1, with six pack horses per fire. The equipment includes a black tent, iron horse trough, cloth trough, shovel, chisel, pestle, basket, axe, pliers, and saw, all one of each; two armor beds and two sickles; one fire support tool, one breast horse rope, and three each of head restraints and leg shackles; each person is equipped with one bow, thirty arrows, one Hu Lu (a type of weapon), one broadsword, one whetstone, one large hook, one felt hat, one felt cover, and one vine for travel, along with nine dou of wheat and two dou of rice, all self-provided, with their armor and military gear stored in the armory. In the event of a campaign, provisions will be allocated based on their entry and exit. Each person is equipped with one bow, thirty arrows, one Hu Lu, one broadsword, one whetstone, one large hook, one felt hat, one felt cover, and one vine for travel, along with nine dou of wheat and two dou of rice, all self-provided, with their armor and military gear stored in the armory. In the event of a campaign, provisions will be allocated based on their entry and exit.
The latter is generally led by a prince or an official from the inner court, holding a military rank associated with the Sixteen Guards of the Gate, residing within the Imperial Garden. The so-called Five Mansions refer to the troops raised from the five provinces surrounding the capital, while the Three Guards consist of the Xun, Ling, and Ce inner city guards, divided into left and right divisions, mostly comprised of the sons of noble families and officials. This serves as a pathway for the sons of the gentry to advance. Among them, the Ce Guard is the most trusted by the royal family, capable of serving in the inner court, participating in the inner ceremonial guard, and during court meetings and outings, they stand in alternating formations with the left and right guards, as well as the left and right martial guards and the left and right cavalry guards. They also take turns at various city gates, performing duties such as "assisting in captures" and "patrolling." Collectively, these are referred to as the Imperial Guard, which, along with the Northern Army, is responsible for the defense of the capital. The Three Mansions and Three Guards of the Crown Prince serve as the Crown Prince's ceremonial guard, with military ranks similar to those mentioned above, but on a much smaller scale, typically led by the Grand Minister among the Eight Assistants, with titles such as Grand Protector and Grand Tutor nominally held by the Three Solitary and Three Young.
Maintain one-third of the forces in active service throughout the year. At the center, establish the offices of the Sixteen Guard Generals specifically responsible for the military forces of the realm, which are divided into: Left and Right Guards, Left and Right Cavalry Guards, Left and Right Martial Guards, Left and Right Mighty Guards, Left and Right Golden Guards, Left and Right Leading Guards, Left and Right Gate Supervising Guards, and Left and Right Thousand Cattle Guards. Except for the Left and Right Gate Supervising Guards and the Left and Right Thousand Cattle Guards, which oversee the military forces in the capital, the other guards also concurrently command the military forces of over three hundred prefectures in Guanzhong.
The Divine Martial Army is composed of elite troops selected during the rotation of border forces, with the smallest number. (Later, it was reset to be the most powerful force of the Divine Strategy Army.) The emperor employs different systems of military sources to mutually restrain each other, thereby avoiding the situation where generals come from the same faction, preventing personal monopolization of power, and using this to maintain the combat effectiveness of the army
In addition to the guards of the Sixteen Guards, each also commands 40 to 50 military offices, serving as garrison and reserve forces
Each guard unit maintains a standing army of 25,000 to 40,000 personnel, which is considered a regular army. The organizational structure of the guard units at the grassroots level is slightly higher than that of the provincial soldiers, and they are collectively referred to as the Eagle Wing Guard. The camp officers hold a rank one level higher than the provincial soldiers, with the commander being the Eagle Wing General, whose rank is higher than that of the provincial soldiers' Guoyi Duwei. The main body is stationed in Chang'an, with a regular force of approximately 200,000 to 300,000 troops. (The predecessor was the Chang Cong Imperial Guard, also known as the Kuang Cavalry)
The position of the various generals in charge of the main forces of the empire is often a nominal title, held by powerful ministers or princes, while the generals handle the actual affairs. Similarly, the positions of Grand Commander and Grand Protector are also nominally held by princes from vassal states or tribal leaders. In practice, each guard has soldiers but lacks the authority to mobilize them, while the Ministry of War has the authority to deploy troops but has no soldiers to manage, resulting in mutual restraint. Only an imperial edict can unify the two, allowing for the mobilization of the army.
The Longwu Army originated during the Zhenguan period of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty, when skilled cavalry riders were selected to establish the Seven Flying Cavalry Camps. Over the years, it was expanded to a total of ten thousand riders. Later, due to its contributions in assisting the current Emperor Xuanzong, it was further expanded and supplemented into the Left and Right Longwu Armies, each consisting of 15,000 men, making it the only cavalry unit among the various armies in the capital.
Cavalry primarily wears two-piece armor that is joined at the front and back, or soft leather armor. They are equipped with a slightly shorter lance that has a grip slot, and a tail strap that can be inserted into the ground to hold a short spike (commonly referred to as a lance cavalry). This type of cavalry possesses a strong impact against nomadic tribes in frontal assaults, but their turning and maneuverability are somewhat inferior to the rapid-fire short-weapon nomadic cavalry. Therefore, in the border troops, there are also similar nomadic cavalry units composed of auxiliary soldiers and volunteers, as well as raiding units made up of exiles.
The border military system adopts a hereditary military household system, some of which evolved from the provincial troops, similar to the father-son soldiers in the Feather Forest Army. Initially, the border troops were based on volunteers recruited by the court, who were settled locally to establish military households. These military households could be exempted from a considerable amount of taxes and corvée labor. As a condition, each household was required to provide able-bodied men to fill the vacancies of the previous generation of border troops.
The highest general is generally not appointed, with the grand general overseeing the various guards. Each of the sixteen guards has a commander who is granted the title of general, and below them are the central lieutenant, lieutenant general, left and right lieutenants, as well as the record officer, military officer, cavalry officer, armor officer, and other titles of military staff.
Especially since Empress Wu Zetian established the imperial examination system, the nation has been known as the Celestial Empire, boasting an army of one million, which is not an exaggeration. For instance, during the second year of the Yuanhe era under Emperor Xianzong of the late Tang dynasty, there were 830,000 registered military personnel, not including the troops privately recruited by various regional warlords and the local gentry's personal militias.
The organizational structure is divided into three levels: upper, middle, and lower, based on the size of the establishment. The governor is designated as the Zhechong Duwi (正五品), while the deputy governors are the Zuo and You Guoyi Duwi. Within the government, there are regiments (also known as battalions), with officers and soldiers. Each regiment is subdivided into teams, each team has a team leader, and below the team are squads, each led by a squad leader. Each battalion is composed of five teams, each team consists of three squads, and each squad is led by five squad leaders, each responsible for ten soldiers. The battalion serves as the basic unit. Each battalion is composed of five teams, each team consists of three squads, and each squad is led by five squad leaders, each responsible for ten soldiers. The battalion serves as the basic unit.
In addition, there were also some local troops from various regional governors and other systems. Taking the example of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty's military expedition against Gaogouli in the 19th year of the Zhenguan era, the forces that were dispatched included not only the imperial guards accompanying the emperor, the Five Guards Army, and the local troops from the Jiang, Xia, Huai, and Ling regions, but also the border troops from Yingzhou and Songmo, the local militia from Pinglu and Lulong, as well as the auxiliary troops from the Turkic, Qiang, and Xianbei ethnic groups, the tribal soldiers from the Khitan and Xianbei vassal states, the troops from the vassal states of Silla and Baekje, and the temporarily recruited mercenary forces known as "Yizong," amounting to hundreds of thousands in total.
In the border regions where the various vassal states and the nation are intertwined, a Grand Protectorate is established under the governor. The Grand Protectorate, in addition to overseeing border defense, also manages the affairs of the various ethnic groups in the border areas. Both the Grand Protector and the General of the Guard hold the rank of Third Grade.
The Imperial Guard is a field army composed of skilled warriors selected from the garrison troops, while the frontier troops are equivalent to modern hereditary border defense forces. The garrison troops serve as the reserve manpower for local defense units and the Imperial Guard, all of which are considered standing armies
Within the inner city of Chang'an, the imperial city is also home to the Royal Guards, the Left and Right Feather Forest Armies, the Left and Right Dragon Martial Armies, and the Left and Right Divine Martial Armies, which serve as the personal guard units of the Emperor. Collectively referred to as the Six Armies of the Northern Yamen or the Northern Armies, they are commanded by the highest-ranking general, the Grand General, along with additional positions such as the guards of the palace, front, rear, left, and right, as well as the Left and Right Lieutenants, the Tongzheng, and the Special Advancers. Each army is led by a general and has subordinate units designated as the Same Guard Army.
At that time, the main source of troops, the provincial soldiers, served in two capacities: conscription and garrison. Conscription refers to temporary deployment, while garrison denotes a fixed station. In addition to serving personally, one could also pay to hire substitutes (by paying someone to serve in their place). Depending on the rank and distance, a certain amount of silk or money was required. Those who served were all farmers with permanent fields, serving five times a year, and generally, the maximum duration should not exceed three years; otherwise, it would easily lead to soldiers deserting. The military and government were categorized into internal and external offices. The internal office refers to the five military offices stationed in the capital region, along with the three guards of the capital, and the three offices and three guards of the crown prince collectively known as the Southern Army (also referred to as the Southern Guard and the Cavalry). Correspondingly, there were the six armies of the Northern Guard, personally inspected by the emperor, known as the Northern Army. The former was mostly under the command of the officials of the sixteen guards led by the prime minister, stationed inside the Vermilion Bird Gate in front of the Tai Chi Palace.
During the Tang Dynasty, soldiers did not have strict distinctions between different military branches. With the exception of cavalry, the training they received was largely interchangeable, resulting in an average combat capability. The only differences lay in the types of weapons equipped. Consequently, there were no units with a singular equipment configuration; for instance, a unit primarily composed of archers would also be supplemented by a combined force of 150 spear and shield bearers for close protection. Similarly, in the combinations of mounted troops and light cavalry, a small number of highly mobile cavalrymen would be included to serve as scouts and for reconnaissance. The only differences lay in the types of weapons equipped. Consequently, there were no units with a singular equipment configuration; for instance, a unit primarily composed of archers would also be supplemented by a combined force of 150 spear and shield bearers for close protection. Similarly, in the combinations of mounted troops and light cavalry, a small number of highly mobile cavalrymen would be included to serve as scouts and for reconnaissance.
The prosperity of the Tang Dynasty is inseparable from its formidable military strength. The need for prolonged external warfare, along with the continuation of the traditions of the nomadic peoples of the Northern Dynasties, contributed to a culture that valued martial prowess among the populace, where chivalry flourished. It was customary for scholars to be required to master the fundamental skills of archery and horsemanship, primarily to meet the needs of border defense.
At the provincial level, there are three types of military district structures: the Jiedushi (military governor), the Dudu (military commander), and the Duhu (military protector). Among these, the Jiedushi holds the most comprehensive powers and is typically equivalent to a marshal, but is assigned to a fixed number of provinces for military and political defense duties. At the border, there are positions for the Grand Dudu and Dudu, who similarly oversee military and political authority over several provinces, but their jurisdiction is not fixed in size.
In the regions, the central government administers sixteen provinces (which are much larger than the original provinces, but do not have permanent officials, being managed by special representatives from the central government) as well as several large protectorates and over a dozen military governorates